THE JOURNEY OF THE SELF
(Excerpts Only)

By: Shaykh Fadhlalla Haeri

Chapter 2
The Nature and Spectrum of the Self

Definition

In order to establish a clear foundation upon which we can develop our model of the self, we need first to define the 'self', nafs. The word nafs possesses many meanings and it may be defined as soul, or self, psyche, mind, spirit or life. It is also defined as a living creature, an animate being, essence, nature, inclination, appetite or desire, or personal identity. Nafs is derived from the root nafasa, whose root meanings include to be precious, valuable, or priceless, as well as, to compete or vie, to comfort or relieve, and to breathe, inhale and exhale. Other words derived from the same root mean a gem or precious thing (nafisa), a state of mind or mood (nafsi), mental attitude or disposition (nafsiya), breath, a swallow or gulp, and freedom or liberty (nafas), childbirth or delivery (nifas), psychology (nafsaniya); and the study of psychology is called `ilm al-nafs, the science of the self.

We shall define nafs as self or soul, which is non-physical, nor is it part of a body, nor is a physical body a necessary condition for its existence. The soul or self is that which breathes dynamism into physicality and gives it life.

The self manifests and evolves in this existence, in parallel with the growth and development of the body. Although it is not dependent upon the body for its existence, it exists and manifests in this life because of a body.

The nature of the self is indestructible and indivisible, and the fact that some part of us longs not to die echoes that immortal and eternal reality of the soul, or self. It emerged from non-time (pre-existence), lives in time, and returns to non-time (beyond physical existence).

The self has its origin in the realm of the unseen, and is primal and indestructible.

The self, or soul, then, is an essence which is immortal and non-physical, and which gives life to the physical body. It is influenced by the mind, will, intellect, heart and other cognitive processes.

The self unfolds and evolves in parallel with the growth and development of the human body, each moving towards its fullest potential. As the self moves towards growth of cognizance and awakening, the body moves towards physical maturity and, ultimately, decay and dissolution, back to the elements. Each therefore returns to its origin – the self, or soul, to its eternal non-time source in the unseen, and the body to the dust of the earth.

The self has been defined as 'a subtle, ethereal essence which carries the power of life, the senses, and all voluntary movement and action'.⁽¹⁾ It is the essence that illumines and vitalizes the body. We could say that when the power or light of the self reaches all parts of the body, it is in full wakefulness. When the self disconnects with the outer or physical body but not with the inner, it is in a state of sleep, and when the self disconnects with both the outer body and the inner, it is called death. So sleep and death are of the same general nature, except that sleep involves partial disconnection and death involves total disconnection. We can liken the soul in relation to the body to that of light in relation to a lamp.

The nafs is also similarly defined⁽²⁾ as that which is a body as far as its present existence is concerned, and a spirit (ruh) as far as its immortality is concerned. So the self comes into existence with the body, which is destructible, but its continuation after death is with the spirit (ruh), which is indestructible. It is stated in the Qur`an that 'the soul is one of the commands of [the] Lord' (17:85) and by this is meant that the soul has its origin not in earthly existence but in the eternal realm of the unseen.

The broadest usage of the word nafs in Islamic literature refers to the soul or spirit of the human being. In the writings of the Sufi masters, and in particular the treatises on self-knowledge and purification, the term was usually meant to indicate our lower nature and its baser impulses, as in the phrase, 'The continuing strife between man and his nafs'. The word nafs is frequently translated in such literature as the carnal soul which must be restrained and made patient.

Classifications of the Self

A basic system of classifying the self as consisting of three levels or aspects is described by many writers. The physician and philosopher Avicenna⁽³⁾ describes these three levels in his Canon of Medicine as the vegetal self, the animal self and the rational self, and because of its usefulness, we will return to it in detail later.

Other writers have also followed a similar three-leveled categorization in describing the self. Some have attributed to it three stations of being, or worlds of creation, but in all of these classifications, there are clear parallels which they share in common. These can be seen in the following classifications summarized below.

The Three Levels of Being

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The Three Stations

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The Three Creations

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The Three Worlds

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The Three Worlds of Pictures

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Summary

All of these classifications delineate a progression of the self in its upward journey towards completion and perfection. We notice that there is, in human nature, a forcible movement of inward purposefulness, whose ultimate goal seems to be the cognizance of the source, root or origin of man. We also note that for every inadequacy or incompleteness of the self, there is an innate and instinctive longing or drive for its completion towards a higher level. Once an inadequacy attains completion it identifies with it, and the new identity supersedes the previous one. So it is the nature of the self to be drawn towards its more noble and higher form and thus to its completion. In other words, within every ordinary self, there seems to lie a superself waiting to be born.

Classification of the Self According to Avicenna

As we have mentioned earlier, a basic classification of the self by Avicenna describes it as possessing three aspects which are referred to as the vegetal self, the animal self and the rational self. In life, the first matter that the self encounters concerns the act of feeding, which is followed by growth and development and eventually by reproduction. The next phase of the self is concerned with sensing and movement, and this is followed by the third phase of knowledge and discrimination. Within each of these phases there is an awareness of a perfection inherent within the self, which carries it towards its fullest potential.

The Vegetal Self

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The Animal Self

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The Rational Self

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Further Comments on the Rational Self

The rational self, according to the thirteenth-century philosopher al-Tusi,⁽⁴⁾ is the higher self, and, because its origin (that is, the origin of the self) is of the unified realm of the unseen, it always considers and judges in terms of unity because it is itself in unity and incapable of any division.

Al-Tusi also notes that, unlike the physical body, the rational self can contain all its different manifestations and attributes simultaneously. It can also perceive opposite conditions simultaneously, that is, it can comprehend both hot and cold, wet and dry, at the same time. It does not move from one state to another as the physical body does. The rational self instantaneously and simultaneously perceives all opposites and all potential states. It acts as a standard or reference point for change.

It is the rational self, therefore, that perceives all events that can be perceived through the senses at once and can judge them accordingly. For the rational self has within it a common denominator of sensing. It is called the unifying sense (we normally refer to it as common sense) because it has the ability to integrate at once all the various bits that it senses.

Furthermore, the rational self has the ability to reflect or weigh what it perceives outwardly against its own rationality and its previous experiences, and thereby to distinguish between the true and the false. For example, the sun appears as a small sphere in the sky, but the rational self knows that this is due to its distance from the perceiver, and that the sun is in fact many times larger than the earth itself.

The rational self is the abode of wisdom, knowledge and the higher virtues. It is designed to ride upon the animal self, which is the vehicle of the self to its higher virtues. The animal self ideally should submit itself totally to the rational self, like an animal that one can ride because it has been trained. If the animal self does not yield to the rational self, which is its rider, and instead follows its own whims and desires, then it will end up where it was originally – ungroomed, undisciplined, useless and in constant agitation, attempting to throw off the rider – without whom it will be doomed.

Whatever disciplinary measures are taken against the animal self by reason of its deviation from the will of the rational self (the parallel here being that of the rider who strikes his mount when it veers off the road that the rider wishes to pursue), the animal self visualizes and pictures the agony and affliction of these corrective actions through the power of imagination. As for the rational self, it never left its high and noble abode from the outset – it has merely lent sentiency and the ability of imagination to the animal self.

The rational self has always been, and always is, in the abode of perfect bliss; its real nature relates to the divine. None of our earthly afflictions affects it.

As for the animal self, it can be happy or miserable according to the degree of its obedience to and harmony with the rational self. The animal self which has been in obedience with the guidance and wisdom of the rational self will find itself grazing in the pastures of the 'Garden'; while the animal self which has been obstinately rebellious and led by its whims, will find that it has led itself to the scorching agonies of the 'Fire'.

It is the faculty of comprehension and sentiency that informs the individual that he is at any point in an acceptably stable state or not. This matter is not dependent on the rational self as such. The rational self only lends the ability to comprehend. In proof of this, we observe that the person who is wounded or ill, whilst asleep, does not feel pain. The faculty that causes pain to be felt has turned its face from the world of witnessing to the world of the interspace of sleep. There is, therefore, no sentiency, and the patient feels no pain. In other words, once the rational self turns itself away, comprehension will no longer be present. Agony or pain, the sensation of goodness or joy, and so on, can only befall the animal self by grace of the rational self.

Abodes of the Self

According to the philosopher al-Miskawayh,⁽⁵⁾ the center and abode of the vegetal self is considered to be the organ of the liver, and is the seat from which it emanates. The basic nature of the vegetal self, as we have seen, is characterized by feeding, growth and reproduction, and among the chief functions of the liver are aiding the digestion and assimilating food. The secretions of the liver are also essential in the manufacture of certain hormones, including the reproductive hormones, and hence play a vital role in the powers of reproduction of the vegetal self.

The dwelling place of the animal self is the heart. It is in the heart that man's feelings, emotions and desires originate, that drive him on the one hand to pursue his lowest animalistic tendencies of appetites and anger, or on the other to rise to his nobler qualities of courage, modesty and other virtues.

The abode of the rational self is located in the brain, that part of the brain which is the master-center of control and communication. All the higher mental abilities, including thinking, take place here.

The ultimate and highest self, which achieves the point of pure abstract comprehension and awareness, is linked to the spirit, and its nature is divine and of light.

The Senses and the Self

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The Five Outer Senses

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The Five Inner Senses

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The Relationship of the Senses to the Self

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The Relationship of the Body and the Self

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The Spirit and the Self

The word ruh means spirit, and what it generally implies is the breath of life, or the origin of life. It is derived from the root raha, which means to animate or revive, to inhale or breathe, also to leave or to go away. Ruh has many usages, but we will primarily consider here its meaning in relation to the self.

The spirit is of the realm of the unitive source, that is, the unseen from which all creation manifests, and its nature is divine. It says in the Qur`an:

And they ask you about the spirit [ruh]. Say, the ruh is one of the commands of my Lord and [about it] you are given aught of knowledge, but a little. (17:85)

The Qur`an informs us that the spirit is one of the commands or orders from the Lord. This command is defined in another verse, as:

His command, when He intends anything, is only to say to it, Be! and it is. (36:81)

So the beingness or existence of anything comes about as a direct order or command from the Creator. It is when the spirit is breathed into human beings that they are given the power to subsist, exist and develop in this world, as it says in another verse:

So when I have made him [Adam] complete and breathed into him of My spirit. (15:29)

So God blew of His spirit (ruh) into Adam, giving life to Adam's body. It is this same spirit that is breathed into Mary to bring forth the conception of her son Jesus, as is stated in another Qur`anic verse:

We breathed into her of our ruh. (19:17)

In both these references, the ruh means the breath of life, the creation which belongs to the one reality.

We mentioned earlier that the spirit is a manifestation of the divine reality and, hence, upon death, it returns to its source in the realm of the unseen. It is related in one of the traditions that a close follower of the Prophet was asked, 'Where does the spirit go after it leaves the body?' The Prophet replied, 'Where does the light of the lamp go after the oil is used up?' What is meant here is that the essence of light is a constant or permanent state, and from it emanates various visible manifestations. When we put out a lamp and extinguish its light we have extinguished one of the light's modes or manifestations. It is as if the light of the lamp, like the spirit, has returned to its essence, or original state in the unseen.

To illustrate the relationship of the self to the spirit, we may use the following analogy of fire. If we think of fire as the divine Reality, then from it comes a spark which carries in it the nature of the fire entirely, and that spark is the spirit (ruh). When that spark ignites or touches upon a physical reality, it brings about a new manifestation, and that is the self (nafs).

So we can say that when the spirit conjoins with a physical entity (a human body), it results in the manifestation of the self. The spirit is often referred to as the higher self, whilst the self, which can experience the lower nature of man, is at the opposite end of the spectrum.

The aspect of spirit in each one of us is the same, whilst the aspect of the self varies from person to person and culture to culture. In our lower nature, we dwell in diversity and differentiation, each one of us with his different personality and fingerprint, each creating his own universe. As we move higher and evolve in our consciousness, we begin to transcend our physical differences and begin to see the similarities of motives and desires within us. The closer we are to the source of our origin, the fewer differences there are, while at the very source itself there are no differences at all. We are all in unity. This is what is meant by the one self, or the one reality.

Another description of the self and the spirit is that when the baser tendencies of the self are tethered, the spirit begins to emerge. As the tarnish on the self is polished away and purified, the presence of the spirit can manifest. So another way of looking at the self is that it is the place of the lower character that is to be risen above and transcended, and the spirit is the place of the higher character and virtues that one aspires towards. In general, the spirit always pertains to the subtler and higher element, whilst the self represents the lower aspect. Broadly speaking, this view holds through most of the teachings of Sufic literature.

The Heart and the Self

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The Arabic word for heart (qalb) is derived from the root qalaba, which is to turn around or to revolve. This implies that the heart is functioning normally if it turns. If the heart is true to its nature, it will not be fixed or attached to anything. A sound heart can turn from any situation in which it is placed without resistance or suffering, if it is not pulled by or attached to that situation.

The implication is that natural creation intends for us to be related to, aware of and connected with whatever situation confronts us. Then, if it changes, one also changes. One's heart will turn. Ultimately and ideally, one's heart adheres to nothing and nothing adheres to it. There is only dynamic orientation, equilibrium and connectedness in flux – a primal, unific experience.

The analogy of radar is useful here. Radar, like the heart, transmits and receives signals. If it is fixed in one direction – for example, emotional attachment and possessiveness towards one's child – then should anything happen to the child, agony and pain will be the result. In addition, one's capacity to deal with the crisis situation, and thereby help others, diminishes, defeating one of the main objectives of love (care, concern and service). But if one's heart were unattached and freely scanning the entire field, the affliction would have been put in the right perspective and not caused such deep or lasting suffering, and thereby the outcome would have been handled more objectively and effectively. Obviously, we all have attachments and expectations in this world and it seems we cannot exist without them. However, we are speaking here of the degree of attachment and our expectations from it.

In Sufic literature, the heart is often defined and considered as a divine subtlety attached to the physical organ of the heart, and it is that subtlety which holds the truth within man.

The heart is also the originator of all our feelings, emotions, appetites and desires. It is also the dwelling place of the animal self and hence it is where the powers of attraction and repulsion emanate from.

One viewpoint⁽⁶⁾ defines the heart as the whole power behind the human being, both the self and the spirit. In this point of view, the heart is equated with both the self and the spirit.

Another view prefers to relate and connect all cognizances and understanding to the heart, implying that the brain relates to the heart. Comprehension and understanding then are directly related to the heart. The brain is only a further means or auxiliary by which comprehension takes place. This view pinpointing the heart as the canter of cognizances is supported and confirmed by the reference in the Qur`an which says:

Have they not traveled in the land so that they should have hearts with which to understand, or ears with which to hear? For surely, it is not the eyes that are blind, but blind are the hearts which are in the breasts. (22:46)

The Heart as a Battlefield

The heart has also been described as the battleground of the intellect and the self. In order for the self to move away from its lower nature, it requires the light of the intellect and discrimination to show it the proper nourishment and fuel that it needs, in order to evolve towards its higher self. For the self and its body need to dispel from it whatever causes it harm and deflects it from its natural course of progress, and to attract to it whatever is conducive to its evolution.

The source of the two powers of attraction and repulsion dwell in the heart, and these forces can be looked upon as two armies of soldiers.

The army of the power of attraction, or desire, has an inner and outer aspect. The inner includes all urges and desires, such as hunger pangs and other needs, as well as the desire for intangible goals such as companionship or status. Its outer aspect is to do with the body itself, and its actual ability to bring the food to it and to achieve its other outer goals.

The other army is the power of repulsion, or anger as it is often referred to. Its inner aspect is anger against what we dislike (and we usually dislike anything that prevents us from satisfying our desires). Its outer aspect is again the body itself and its limbs, by which it repels that which is undesirable.

If these armies of attraction and repulsion are left to run rampant by the animal self, they will indulge themselves in the base tendencies of its lower nature.

So the heart calls upon another and loyal army, which is the intellect and discrimination. Its soldiers are knowledge, wisdom and reflection. It is the intellect which sheds the light of discrimination which will ensure that what we pursue and what we turn away from are conducive to our growth. This ability to discriminate functions like a spy constantly ensuring that there is a feedback mechanism, and that we take the right course.

If we call upon the army of the intellect, we can ensure that rebelliousness and transgression will not take place. But if we neglect our knowledge and wisdom, and allow the army of the powers of anger and desire to run rampant, the result will be total destruction. If the soldiers of anger and desire are subdued, they will help and guide one along a safe passage, becoming the best of companions on the way. Here the heart is considered the same as the rational self, because the heart, as we have mentioned earlier, is a clear reflector of the truth behind man.

The Intellect and the Self

The Arabic word for intellect is 'aql, and is derived from the root, 'aqala, which means to be endowed with reason, to possess intelligence, to comprehend, to understand.

The intellect, in its highest sense, is a sublime power which receives the unveilings of pure light. In its lowest sense, it is the power of ordinary reasoning.

The intellect is said to perceive things in their reality. Its uniqueness is that part of it can become the whole (like a hologram, which will be discussed in a later chapter).

It is also said that the intellect is the vice-regent of the divine in human beings. It calls us to be united with the First Cause. Our intellect thinks of the First Cause as most noble and perfect, and deems it its duty to attain its divine attributes and qualities. Without the intellect, or the faculty of discrimination, there would be no enlightenment.

The intellect is a source of power for the rational self, though they are not identical. The self is always the doer and the intellect is only one of its instruments. The intellect obeys the self in the way that the knife obeys the hand. Hence, the more conscious and aware is the self, the more sublime is the purpose to which the intellect can be applied toward the higher development of the self. The great master 'Ali ibn Abi Talib⁽⁷⁾ says that the intellect is a sword, so use it to cut down your whims and desires.

The intellect comes from the realm of absolute Reality, and by its light appear the forms of all things knowable. The images and the experiences which we perceive by the intellect have their own reality, in the same way that an image we perceive of the outer world of the senses has its reality. In fact, the images of the intellect have a greater reality than the images of the outer world which we consider to be real. For the material world is only a shadow of the world of the intellect, which is pure light – the reverse of what is normally considered to be true.

That is, in fact, the meaning of another saying of the master, `Ali ibn Abi Talib: 'And in you is folded up the cosmos'. By this he meant that the reality of the world within our intellect and our self is far greater in truth than the world we witness outside ourselves. It is as though the self was brought into this world to become accustomed to its shadows, in order to be prepared to witness the hidden yet dazzling reality. It is stated in the Qur`an, 'Thus do We [i.e. Reality] make the signs clear for the people of intellect' (30:28).

In summary, we may glean further insight into the relationship between the self and the intellect in the word 'iqal, which is derived from the same root for intellect. 'Iqal is the cord used for hobbling the legs of the camel, preventing it from going astray by subduing and controlling it. This is also what reason does to man. Another meaning of 'qal is the looped rope used to secure in place the head covering used by Arab men in the Middle East, implying to contain and tether oneself by subjugating the self to the faculty of reasoning and intellect.

Summary of the Self to the Spirit, Heart and Intellect

It has already been said that the self has been formed by reason of the descent of the spirit – that divine spark from the unseen – into physicality in the world of creation. So there is an affinity and love between the spirit and the self in the same way that there is an affinity and love between Adam and Eve. At the time that Adam descended and dwelt with Eve, the spirit descended into earthly physicality and the self was formed. The spirit, then, dwelt with the earthly nature and caused it to be a self. As a result of the dwelling of the spirit in the self, the heart emerged. What is meant here is not the physical heart, but the subtle heart, which we described earlier.

To say that the heart comes from the union of the spirit and the self from the world of the unseen, is the same as saying that offspring come from the union of Adam and Eve in the world of creation. If it were not for the union of the two – that is, the spirit and the self – the heart would not have come about.

As the spirit aspires towards its origin in the unseen, the heart will yearn towards the spirit, like a faithful and loyal son to its father. In the same way, the self will yearn towards the heart, like a loving and compassionate mother towards her son. Thus, if the self yearns towards the heart, it will lift itself above the material world and its faculties will be oriented in a higher direction. It will gradually find the aspects of worldly existence of diminishing interest. If, on the other hand, the self takes entirely to its lower nature, it will dwell only in its lower, materialistic tendencies and appetites.

In summary, then, we have seen that in order for the self to move away from its lower nature and overcome it, it requires the light of the intellect and discrimination to repulse what is harmful to it and to attract what is conducive to its evolvement. For it is by the intellect in its highest sense that enlightenment can be attained.

Notes

⁽¹⁾Sayyid Sharif al-Jurjani, the fourteenth-century Persian theologian and gnostic. [Up]

⁽²⁾Sadr al-Din Muhammad al-Shirazi, widely known as Mulla Sadra, the sixteenth-century Persian gnostic and theosopher. [Up]

⁽³⁾Known as Avicenna in the West, Ibn Sina lived in the eleventh century in Bukhara (in present day Russia). [Up]

⁽⁴⁾Nasir al-Din abu Jafar al-Tusi, the thirteenth-century Persian ethical philosopher. [Up]

⁽⁵⁾Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Miskawayh, a historian and philosopher of the tenth century in Iran. [Up]

⁽⁶⁾View held by Sayyid M. H. Tabataba`i, the twentieth-century theologian and scholar of Iran. [Up]